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<title>The Gulag Archipelago</title>

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The Gulag Archipelago

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</style><table class="infobox ib-book vcard"><caption class="infobox-title">The Gulag Archipelago: An Experiment in Literary Investigation </caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Author</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Original title</th><td class="infobox-data">Архипелаг ГУЛАГ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Translator</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">

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</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Geneviève Johannet, José Johannet, <a href="Nikita_Struve" title="Nikita Struve">Nikita Struve</a> (French)</li><li><a href="Thomas_P._Whitney" title="Thomas P. Whitney">Thomas P. Whitney</a> (English)</li><li><a href="Tian_Dawei" title="Tian Dawei">Tian Dawei</a> (Chinese)</li><li>Francisco Augusto Ferreira, Maria Llistó, and José Augusto Seabra (Portuguese)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Language</th><td class="infobox-data">Russian</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publisher</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="YMCA_Press" title="YMCA Press">YMCA Press</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Publication date</div></th><td class="infobox-data">1973</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publication place</th><td class="infobox-data">France</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Published in English</div></th><td class="infobox-data">1974</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Media type</th><td class="infobox-data">Print (<a href="Hardback" class="mw-redirect" title="Hardback">hardback</a> and <a href="Paperback" title="Paperback">paperback</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">

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</style><bdi>0-06-013914-5</bdi></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)"><abbr title="Online Computer Library Center number">OCLC</abbr></a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/802879">802879</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Dewey_Decimal_Classification" title="Dewey Decimal Classification">Dewey Decimal</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data">365/.45/0947</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="LCC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCC (identifier)"><abbr title="Library of Congress Classification">LC Class</abbr></a></th><td class="infobox-data">HV9713 .S6413 1974</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #36c; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#154E9D; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em"><a href="Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Conservatism in Russia">Conservatism in Russia</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Eurasianism" title="Eurasianism">Eurasianism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Duginism" class="mw-redirect" title="Duginism">Duginism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Monarchism_in_Russia" title="Monarchism in Russia">Monarchism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">Tsarism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Right-wing_populism" title="Right-wing populism">Populism</a></li>

<li><a href="Putinism" title="Putinism">Putinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Russian nationalism</a>

<ul><li><a href="All-Russian_nation" title="All-Russian nation">All-Russian</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_nationalism#Russia" title="Christian nationalism">Christian</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultra</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Slavophilia" title="Slavophilia">Slavophilia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pochvennichestvo" title="Pochvennichestvo">Pochvennichestvo</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Traditionalist_conservatism" title="Traditionalist conservatism">Traditionalist conservatism</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_autocracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian autocracy">Autocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Bureaucracy#Russia" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantinism#Praise" title="Byzantinism">Byzantinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">Economic interventionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Familialism#Russia" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Imperialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_irredentism" title="Russian irredentism">Irredentism</a></li>

<li><a href="Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Orthodox values</a>

<ul><li><a href="Nuclear_Orthodoxy" title="Nuclear Orthodoxy">Nuclear Orthodoxy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Moscow%2C_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Moscow, third Rome</a></li>

<li> <a href="Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li>

<li><a href="Reactionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactionism">Reactionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Culture_of_Russia" title="Culture of Russia">Russian culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a></li>

<li><a href="Sobornost" title="Sobornost">Sobornost</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social hierarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_order" title="Social order">Social order</a></li>

<li><a href="Sovereign_democracy" title="Sovereign democracy">Sovereign democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Black_Hundreds" title="Black Hundreds">Black Hundreds</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_Russia" title="Great Russia">Great Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Orthodoxy%2C_Autocracy%2C_and_Nationality" title="Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality">Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="White_movement" title="White movement">White movement</a>

<ul><li><a href="White_Army" title="White Army">White Army</a></li>

<li><a href="White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">White émigré</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Zemstvo" title="Zemstvo">Zemstvo</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Konstantin_Aksakov" title="Konstantin Aksakov">Aksakov</a></li>

<li><a href="Elena_Chudinova" title="Elena Chudinova">Chudinova</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolay_Danilevsky" title="Nikolay Danilevsky">Danilevsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Dostoevsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li>

<li><a href="Semyon_Frank" title="Semyon Frank">Frank</a></li>

<li><a href="Ivan_Ilyin" title="Ivan Ilyin">Ilyin</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikhail_Katkov" title="Mikhail Katkov">Katkov</a></li>

<li><a href="Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Khomyakov</a></li>

<li><a href="Konstantin_Leontiev" title="Konstantin Leontiev">Leontiev</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_von_Lilienfeld" title="Paul von Lilienfeld">von Lilienfeld</a></li>

<li><a href="Serge_Obolensky" title="Serge Obolensky">Obolensky</a></li>

<li><a href="Konstantin_Pobedonostsev" title="Konstantin Pobedonostsev">Pobedonostsev</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Prokhanov" title="Alexander Prokhanov">Prokhanov</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasily_Rozanov" title="Vasily Rozanov">Rozanov</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyotr_Semyonov" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyotr Semyonov">Semyonov</a></li>

<li><a href="Igor_Shafarevich" title="Igor Shafarevich">Shafarevich</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikhail_Shcherbatov" title="Mikhail Shcherbatov">Shcherbatov</a></li>

<li><a href="Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Solovyov</a></li>

<li><a href="Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Solzhenitsyn</a></li>

<li><a href="Pitirim_Sorokin" title="Pitirim Sorokin">Sorokin</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolay_Strakhov" title="Nikolay Strakhov">Strakhov</a></li>

<li><a href="Vladislav_Surkov" title="Vladislav Surkov">Surkov</a></li>

<li><a href="Andrei_Tarkovsky" title="Andrei Tarkovsky">Tarkovsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Lev_Tikhomirov" title="Lev Tikhomirov">Tikhomirov</a></li>

<li><a href="Tikhon_(Shevkunov)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tikhon (Shevkunov)">Tikhon</a></li>

<li><a href="Sergei_Nikolaevich_Trubetskoy" title="Sergei Nikolaevich Trubetskoy">Trubetskoy</a></li>

<li><a href="Sergey_Uvarov" title="Sergey Uvarov">Uvarov</a></li>

<li><a href="Sergey_Vikulov" title="Sergey Vikulov">Vikulov</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyotr_Wrangel" title="Pyotr Wrangel">von Wrangel</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikhail_Yuryev" title="Mikhail Yuryev">Yuryev</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Zhukovsky</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="St_Petersburg_Dialogues" title="St Petersburg Dialogues">St Petersburg Dialogues</a> (1821)</li>

<li><a href="The_Organic_Theory_of_Societies" class="mw-redirect" title="The Organic Theory of Societies">The Organic Theory of Societies</a> (1873)</li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_Revolution" title="Sociology of Revolution">Sociology of Revolution</a> (1925)</li>

<li><a href="Foundations_of_Geopolitics" title="Foundations of Geopolitics">Foundations of Geopolitics</a> (1997)</li>

<li><a href="The_Notre_Dame_de_Paris_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="The Notre Dame de Paris Mosque">The Notre Dame de Paris Mosque</a> (2005)</li>

<li><a href="The_Fourth_Political_Theory" title="The Fourth Political Theory">The Fourth Political Theory</a> (2009)</li></ul></div></div></td>

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The Gulag Archipelago: An Experiment in Literary Investigation (<a href="Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: Архипелаг ГУЛАГ, <a href="Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: Arkhipelag GULAG) is a three-volume nonfiction series written between 1958 and 1968 by Russian writer <a href="Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a>, a <a href="Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet dissident</a>. It was first published in 1973 by the Parisian publisher <a href="YMCA_Press" title="YMCA Press">YMCA-Press</a>,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> and it was translated into <a href="English_language" title="English language">English</a> and <a href="French_language" title="French language">French</a> the following year. It explores a vision of life in what is often known as the <a href="Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a>, the Soviet <a href="Forced_labour_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labour camp">labour camp</a> system. Solzhenitsyn constructed his highly detailed narrative from various sources including reports, interviews, statements, diaries, legal documents, and his own experience as a Gulag prisoner.

Following its publication, the book was initially circulated in the Soviet Union by <a href="Samizdat" title="Samizdat">samizdat</a> underground publication. It was not widely published there until 1989. It appeared that year in the literary journal <a href="Novy_Mir" title="Novy Mir">Novy Mir</a>; a third of the work was published in three issues.<a href="#cite_note-Pearce2011-3">[3]</a> Since the <a href="Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>, The Gulag Archipelago has been officially published in Russia.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2></div>

As structured in most printed editions, the text comprises seven sections divided into three volumes: parts 1 and 2, parts 3 and 4, and parts 5 to 7. At one level, the Gulag Archipelago traces the history of the system of forced labor camps that operated in the Soviet Union from 1918 to 1956. Solzhenitsyn begins with <a href="Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>'s original decrees that were made shortly after the <a href="October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>; they established the legal and practical framework for a series of camps where <a href="Forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Forced labor in the Soviet Union">political prisoners and ordinary criminals would be sentenced to forced labor</a>.<a href="#endnote_b">Note 2</a>

The book describes and discusses the waves of <a href="Purge" title="Purge">purges</a> and the assembling of <a href="Show_trial" title="Show trial">show trials</a> by Stalin through the 1930s in the context of the development of the greater Gulag system; Solzhenitsyn closely examines its purposive legal and bureaucratic development. The narrative ends in 1956 at the time of <a href="Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>'s Secret Speech ("<a href="On_the_Personality_Cult_and_its_Consequences" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Personality Cult and its Consequences">On the Personality Cult and its Consequences</a>"). Khrushchev gave the speech at the <a href="20th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>, denouncing <a href="Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s <a href="Personality_cult" class="mw-redirect" title="Personality cult">personality cult</a>, his autocratic power, and the widespread surveillance of all classes of people that pervaded the Stalin era.

Parallel to this historical and legal narrative, Solzhenitsyn follows the typical course of a <a href="Zek_(inmate)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zek (inmate)">zek</a> through the Gulag. This was a slang term for an <a href="Inmate" class="mw-redirect" title="Inmate">inmate</a>, derived from the widely used abbreviation z/k for zakliuchenny ("prisoner"). He started with arrest, <a href="Show_trial" title="Show trial">show trial</a>, and initial internment, continuing with the transport to the Gulag. In that setting, he explored the treatment of prisoners and their general living conditions, slave labor gangs and the technical prison camp system, camp rebellions and strikes, such as the <a href="Kengir_uprising" title="Kengir uprising">Kengir uprising</a>; the practice of continued internal exile following the completion of the original prison sentence, and the ultimate but not guaranteed release of the prisoner, if one survived. Solzhenitsyn's examination details the trivial and commonplace events of an average prisoner's life, as well as specific and noteworthy events during the history of the Gulag system, including revolts and uprisings.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thesis">Thesis</h2></div>

At Chapter 4, Solzhenitsyn writes: "<a href="Macbeth" title="Macbeth">Macbeth’s</a> self-justifications were feeble – and his conscience devoured him. Yes, even Iago was a little lamb, too. The imagination and spiritual strength of Shakespeare's evildoers stopped short at a dozen corpses. Because they had no ideology. Ideology – that is what gives evildoing its long-sought justification and gives the evildoer the necessary steadfastness and determination. That is the social theory which helps to make his acts seem good instead of bad in his own and others' eyes.... That was how the agents of the <a href="Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> fortified their wills: by invoking <a href="Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>; the conquerors of foreign lands, by extolling the grandeur of their Motherland; the colonizers, by <a href="Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a>; the <a href="Nazis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazis">Nazis</a>, by <a href="Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>; and the <a href="Jacobin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobin">Jacobins</a> (early and late), by equality, brotherhood, and the happiness of future generations... Without evildoers there would have been no Archipelago."<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

Solzhenitsyn painstakingly laid the theoretical, legal, and practical origins of the Gulag system at Lenin's feet, not Stalin's. According to Solzhenitsyn's testimony, Stalin amplified a <a href="Concentration_camp" title="Concentration camp">concentration camp</a> system that was already in place and this was significant because he said many Western intellectuals considered the Soviet prison camp system to be a Stalinist aberration.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a>

Solzhenitsyn claims that although many practices had been stopped, the basic structure of the system had survived and it could be revived and expanded by future leaders. While Khrushchev, the Communist Party, and the Soviet Union's supporters in the West viewed the Gulag as a deviation of Stalin, Solzhenitsyn and others among the opposition tended to view it as a systemic fault of Soviet political culture, and an inevitable outcome of the <a href="Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> political project.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publication">Publication</h2></div>

After the KGB had confiscated Solzhenitsyn's materials in Moscow, during 1965–1967, he worked to develop his preparatory drafts of The Gulag Archipelago into finished typescript. He accomplished some of this while in hiding at his friends' homes in the Moscow region and elsewhere.

While held at the KGB's <a href="Lubyanka_(KGB)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lubyanka (KGB)">Lubyanka Prison</a> in 1945, Solzhenitsyn had befriended <a href="Arnold_Susi" title="Arnold Susi">Arnold Susi</a>, a lawyer and former Estonian Minister of Education, who had been taken captive after the Soviet Union occupied Estonia in 1944. Solzhenitsyn entrusted Susi with the original typed and proofread manuscript of the finished work, after copies had been made of it both on paper and on microfilm.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Susi got the manuscript to his daughter, Heli Susi, who kept the "master copy" hidden from the KGB in Estonia until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>

In 1973, the <a href="KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> seized one of only three existing copies of the text still on Soviet soil. This was achieved by interrogating Elizaveta Voronyanskaya, one of Solzhenitsyn's trusted typists<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> who knew where the typed copy was hidden. Within days of her release by the KGB she was found hanged in the stairwell of her apartment on the 3rd of August 1973. She had apparently either hanged herself or been murdered.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Solzhenitsyn had wanted the manuscript to be first published in Russia, but knew this was impossible under conditions then extant. After Solzhenitsyn learned of Voronyanskaya's death he decided to allow its publication in Paris. The first edition of the work was published in Russian by the Parisian publishing house <a href="YMCA_Press" title="YMCA Press">YMCA-Press</a> (founded by Russian immigrants) a few days after Christmas 1973.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> They had received a go-ahead from Solzhenitsyn but had decided to release the work about ten days earlier than he had expected. News of the nature of the work immediately caused a stir, and translations into many other languages followed within the next few months, sometimes produced in a race against time. American <a href="Thomas_P._Whitney" title="Thomas P. Whitney">Thomas P. Whitney</a> produced the English version. The English and French translations of Volume I appeared in the spring and summer of 1974.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

The work had a profound effect internationally. Not only did it provoke energetic debate in the West; a mere six weeks after the work had left Parisian presses Solzhenitsyn himself was forced into exile. Because possession of the manuscript incurred the risk of a long prison sentence for "anti-Soviet activities", Solzhenitsyn never worked on the manuscript in complete form. Since he was under constant KGB surveillance, Solzhenitsyn worked on only parts of the manuscript at any one time, so as not to put the full book into jeopardy if he happened to be arrested.

For this reason, he secreted the various parts of the work throughout Moscow and the surrounding suburbs, in the care of trusted friends. Sometimes when he was purportedly visiting them on social calls he actually worked on the manuscript in their homes. During much of this time, Solzhenitsyn lived at the dacha of the world-famous cellist <a href="Mstislav_Rostropovich" title="Mstislav Rostropovich">Mstislav Rostropovich</a>, and due to the reputation and standing of the musician, despite the elevated scrutiny of the Soviet authorities, Solzhenitsyn was reasonably safe from KGB searches there.

With the possible exception of <a href="One_Day_in_the_Life_of_Ivan_Denisovich" title="One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich">One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich</a>, it is his best-known and most popular work, at least in the West. Finished in 1968, The Gulag Archipelago was microfilmed and smuggled out to Solzhenitsyn's main legal representative, Fritz Heeb of Zürich, to await publication; a later paper copy, also smuggled out, was signed by <a href="Heinrich_B%C3%B6ll" title="Heinrich Böll">Heinrich Böll</a> at the foot of each page to prove against possible accusations of a falsified work. Solzhenitsyn was aware that there was a wealth of material and perspectives about <a href="Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> to be continued in the future, but he considered the book finished for his part. The royalties and sales income for the book were transferred to the <a href="Solzhenitsyn_Aid_Fund" title="Solzhenitsyn Aid Fund">Solzhenitsyn Aid Fund</a> for aid to former camp prisoners. His fund, (The Russian Social Fund), which had to work in secret in its native country, managed to transfer substantial amounts of money towards helping former gulag prisoners in the 1970s and 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception_and_impact">Reception and impact</h2></div>

Beginning in 2009, Russian schools issued the book as required reading.<a href="#cite_note-Reuters_2010-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bourdreaux_2010-17">[17]</a> Russian president <a href="Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> called the book "much-needed",<a href="#cite_note-Reuters_2010-16">[16]</a> while the Russian Ministry of Education said that the book showed "vital historical and cultural heritage on the course of 20th-century domestic history."<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <a href="Arseny_Roginsky" title="Arseny Roginsky">Arseny Roginsky</a>, the then head of the human-rights organization <a href="Memorial_(society)" title="Memorial (society)">Memorial</a>, welcomed Putin's backing for the Solzhenitsyn textbook.<a href="#cite_note-Bourdreaux_2010-17">[17]</a>

Natalya Reshetovskaya described her ex-husband's book as "folklore", telling a newspaper in 1974 that she felt the book was "not in fact the life of the country and not even the life of the camps but the folklore of the camps."<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> In her 1974 memoir, Reshetovskaya wrote that Solzhenitsyn did not consider the novel to be "historical research, or scientific research", and stated that the significance of the novel had been "overestimated and wrongly appraised."<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Reshetovskaya created an abridged version for Russian high-school students,<a href="#cite_note-Reuters_2010-16">[16]</a> including an introduction about the nature of Solzhenitsyn's "experiment in literary investigation."<a href="#cite_note-NataliaSolzhenitsyn-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Her books were published by the <a href="Novosti_Press_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Novosti Press Agency">Novosti Press</a>, a state-run media founded by the <a href="Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">USSR Council of People's Commissars</a> and the Communist Party Central Committee. Her editor there was Konstantin Semyonov, and he became her third husband.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic">Academic</h3></div>

Historian and archival researcher <a href="Stephen_G._Wheatcroft" title="Stephen G. Wheatcroft">Stephen G. Wheatcroft</a> described the book as "a fine literary masterpiece, a sharp political indictment against the Soviet regime, and has had tremendous importance in raising the issue of Soviet repression in the Russian consciousness." Wheatcroft wrote that the book was essentially a "literary and political work", and "never claimed to place the camps in a historical or social-scientific quantitative perspective" but that in the case of qualitative estimates, Solzhenitsyn gave his inaccurately high estimate as he wanted to challenge the Soviet authorities to show that "the scale of the camps was less than this."<a href="#cite_note-Wheatcroft1996S-24">[24]</a> Wheatcroft stated that historians relied on Solzhenitsyn to support their estimates of deaths under Stalin in the tens of millions but research in the state archives vindicated the lower estimates, while adding that the popular press has continued to include serious errors that should not be cited, or relied on, in academia."<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

<a href="UCLA" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA">UCLA</a> historian <a href="J._Arch_Getty" title="J. Arch Getty">J. Arch Getty</a> wrote of Solzhenitsyn's methodology that "such documentation is methodologically unacceptable in other fields of history" and that "the work is of limited value to the serious student of the 1930s for it provides no important new information or original analytical framework.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Gabor Rittersporn shared Getty's criticism, saying that "he is inclined to give priority to vague reminiscences and hearsay ... [and] inevitably [leads] towards selective bias", adding that "one might dwell at length on the inaccuracies discernible in Solzhenitsyn’s work".<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <a href="Vadim_Rogovin" title="Vadim Rogovin">Vadim Rogovin</a> writes of the eyewitness accounts that Solzhenitsyn had read, saying he "took plenty of license in outlining their contents and interpreting them".<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Both Rogovin and <a href="Walter_Laquer" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Laquer">Walter Laquer</a> argue that the book belongs to the genre of '<a href="Oral_history" title="Oral history">oral history</a>'.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

In an interview with the German weekly newspaper <a href="Die_Zeit" title="Die Zeit">Die Zeit</a>, British historian <a href="Orlando_Figes" title="Orlando Figes">Orlando Figes</a> stated that many Gulag inmates he interviewed for his research identified so strongly with the book's contents that they became unable to distinguish between their own experiences and what they read: "The Gulag Archipelago spoke for a whole nation and was the voice of all those who suffered."<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Soviet dissident and historian <a href="Roy_Medvedev" title="Roy Medvedev">Roy Medvedev</a> referred to the book as "extremely contradictory".<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In a review for the book, Medvedev described it as without parallel for its impact, saying: "I believe there are few who will get up from their desks after reading this book the same as when they opened its first page. In this regard I have nothing with which to compare Solzhenitsyn's book either in Russian or world literature." In the same review, he also writes that "This book is full of thoughts and observations, some profound and true, others perhaps not always true but born in the monstrous sufferings of tens of millions of persons."<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popular_press">Popular press</h3></div>

Novelist <a href="Doris_Lessing" title="Doris Lessing">Doris Lessing</a> said that the book "brought down an empire",<a href="#cite_note-TBB50-36">[36]</a> while author <a href="Michael_Scammell" title="Michael Scammell">Michael Scammell</a> described the book as a gesture that "amounted to a head-on challenge to the Soviet state, calling its very legitimacy into question and demanding revolutionary change."<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> About its impact, philosopher <a href="Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a> wrote: "Until the Gulag, the Communists and their allies had persuaded their followers that denunciations of the regime were largely bourgeois propaganda."<a href="#cite_note-TBB50-36">[36]</a> United States diplomat <a href="George_F._Kennan" title="George F. Kennan">George F. Kennan</a> said that the book was "the most powerful single indictment of a political regime ever to be levied in modern times."<a href="#cite_note-economistopinion-38">[38]</a>

Author <a href="Tom_Butler-Bowdon" title="Tom Butler-Bowdon">Tom Butler-Bowdon</a> has described the book as a "Solzhenitsyn's monument to the millions tortured and murdered in Soviet Russia between the <a href="Bolshevik_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik Revolution">Bolshevik Revolution</a> and the 1950s."<a href="#cite_note-TBB50-36">[36]</a> An edition of <a href="The_Book_Show" class="mw-redirect" title="The Book Show">The Book Show</a> said that the book helped expose the brutality of the Soviet system.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Psychologist <a href="Jordan_Peterson" title="Jordan Peterson">Jordan Peterson</a>, who wrote the foreword of an abridged fiftieth anniversary edition released on 1 November 2018,<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> described The Gulag Archipelago as the most important book of the twentieth century.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

Parallels have been drawn between the book and the treatment of <a href="Liao_Yiwu" title="Liao Yiwu">Liao Yiwu</a>, a dissident who is dubbed "the Chinese Solzhenitsyn" according to the <a href="Agence_France-Presse" title="Agence France-Presse">Agence France-Presse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Author <a href="David_Aikman" title="David Aikman">David Aikman</a> stated that Liao is the first Chinese dissident writer to "come up with a very detailed account of prison conditions including torture in China in the same way that [Soviet dissident Aleksandr] Solzhenitsyn did in The Gulag Archipelago."<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Television_documentary">Television documentary</h2></div>

In December 2009, the Russian channel <a href="Rossiya_K" class="mw-redirect" title="Rossiya K">Rossiya K</a> showed the French television documentary L'Histoire Secrète de l'Archipel du Goulag<a href="#cite_note-Rossiya_K-44">[44]</a> made by Jean Crépu and <a href="Nicolas_Miletitch" title="Nicolas Miletitch">Nicolas Miletitch</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Nicolaev-45">[45]</a> and translated it into Russian under the title Taynaya Istoriya "Arkhipelaga GULAG" (Secret History: The Gulag Archipelago). The documentary covers events related to the writing and publication of The Gulag Archipelago.<a href="#cite_note-Rossiya_K-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>

<ul><li><a href="The_Master_and_Margarita" title="The Master and Margarita">The Master and Margarita</a></li>

<li><a href="Art_and_culture_in_the_Gulag_labor_camps" title="Art and culture in the Gulag labor camps">Art and culture in the Gulag labor camps</a></li>

<li><a href="Article_58_(RSFSR_Penal_Code)" class="mw-redirect" title="Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)">Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Black_Book_of_Communism" title="The Black Book of Communism">The Black Book of Communism</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_site" title="Black site">Black site</a></li>

<li><a href="Crimes_against_humanity_under_communist_regimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimes against humanity under communist regimes">Crimes against humanity under communist regimes</a></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_communist_party_rule" title="Criticism of communist party rule">Criticism of communist party rule</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights in the Soviet Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Le_Monde's_100_Books_of_the_Century" title="Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century">Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century</a></li>

<li><a href="Julius_Margolin" title="Julius Margolin">Julius Margolin</a></li>

<li><a href="Mass_killings_under_communist_regimes" title="Mass killings under communist regimes">Mass killings under communist regimes</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolai_Trifonov" title="Nikolai Trifonov">Nikolai Trifonov</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Stalinist_Legacy" title="The Stalinist Legacy">The Stalinist Legacy</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2></div>

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</style><a href="#ref_a">^</a> In Russian, the term GULAG (ГУЛАГ) is an acronym for Main Directorate of Camps (Главное управление лагерей).</dd>

<dd>2.<a href="#ref_b">^</a> A similar (but on vastly smaller scale) network of forced labour camps, known as <a href="Katorga" title="Katorga">katorga</a>, existed in the <a href="Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> since the early 18th century. It was abolished by the <a href="Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Russian Provisional Government</a> in 1917.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lemonde.fr/m-le-mag/article/2023/12/28/goulag-dans-le-monde-l-avant-et-l-apres-soljenitsyne_6207992_4500055.html">"Goulag dans " Le Monde ", l'avant et l'après Soljenitsyne"</a>. Le Monde.fr (in French). 28 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2024.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telerama.fr/livre/cinquante-ans-apres-avoir-edite-l-archipel-du-goulag-la-librairie-les-editeurs-reunis-a-paris-resiste-encore-7018567.php">"Cinquante ans après avoir édité "L'Archipel du Goulag", la librairie Les Éditeurs réunis à Paris résiste encore"</a>. www.telerama.fr (in French). 20 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2024.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Pearce2011-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Pearce2011_3-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Pearce2011" class="citation book cs1">Joseph Pearce (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lgPwzq0M9lkC&pg=PT81">Solzhenitsyn: A Soul in Exile</a>. Ignatius Press. pp. 81–. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-58617-496-5</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAleksandr_I._Solzhenitsyn1973" class="citation book cs1">Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn (1973). "4". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gulagarchipelago03solz">The Gulag Archipelago</a> (1st ed.). Harper & Row. p. 173. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780060139124</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFThomas1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="D._M._Thomas" title="D. M. Thomas">Thomas, Donald Michael</a> (1998). Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: A Century in his Life. London: Abacus. p. 439.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCohen1974" class="citation news cs1">Cohen, Stephen (16 June 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1974/06/16/archives/the-gulag-archipelago-by-aleksandr-i-solzhenitsyn-translated-by.html">"New York Times Book Review: The Gulag Archipelago"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 9 April 2024.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Solzhenitsyn, The Oak and the Calf and Invisible Allies

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<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRosenfeldNorton_T._Dodge2001" class="citation book cs1">Rosenfeld, Alla; Norton T. Dodge (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r73fmcC5itkC">Art of the Baltics: The Struggle for Freedom of Artistic Expression Under the Soviets, 1945–1991</a>. Rutgers University Press. pp. 55, 134. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8135-3042-0</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSolzhenitsyn1997" class="citation book cs1">Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KIdLEAAAQBAJ">Invisible Allies</a>. Basic Books. pp. 46–64 The Estonians. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-887178-42-6</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/04/books/04solzhenitsyn.html">Solzhenitsyn, Literary Giant Who Defied Soviets Dies at 89</a>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Thomas, 1998, p. 398.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Scammell, Solzhenitsyn, a Biography, 1985

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSwayze1975" class="citation journal cs1">Swayze, Harold (December 1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2495739">"The Gulag Archipelago, 1918–1956: An Experiment In Literary Investigation, I-II. By Aleksandr I. Solshenitsyn. Translated from the Russian by Thomas P. Whitney. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. xii, 660 pp. $12.50, cloth. $1.95, paper. - The Stalinist Terror In The Thirties: Documentation From The Soviet Press. Compiled with an introduction by Borys Levytsky. Hoover Institution Publications, 126. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1974. xxvii, 521 pp. $14.50"</a>. Slavic Review. 34 (4): 825–827. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2495739">10.2307/2495739</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2495739">2495739</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRemnick1994" class="citation magazine cs1">Remnick, David (7 February 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1994/02/14/the-exile-returns">"The Exile Returns"</a>. The New Yorker. Retrieved 30 July 2022.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFReinsch_II2020" class="citation news cs1">Reinsch II, Richard M. (28 November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theamericanconservative.com/truth-in-exile/">"Truth In Exile"</a>. The American Conservative. Retrieved 30 July 2022.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Reuters_2010-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reuters_2010_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reuters_2010_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reuters_2010_16-2">c</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-book-solzhenitsyn/solzhenitsyns-gulag-mandatory-in-russian-schools-idUSTRE69P4MT20101026">"Solzhenitsyn's 'Gulag' mandatory in Russian schools"</a>. Reuters. 26 October 2010. Retrieved 8 January 2022.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Bourdreaux_2010-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bourdreaux_2010_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bourdreaux_2010_17-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFBoudreaux2010" class="citation news cs1">Boudreaux, Richard (28 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303443904575578250132381936">"'Gulag Archipelago' Re-Issued for Russian Students"</a>. The Wall Street Journal.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/entertainment/gulag-archipelago-joins-russian-curriculum-1.825588">"Gulag Archipelago joins Russian curriculum"</a>. CBC. 9 September 2009.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1974/02/06/archives/solzhenitsyns-exwife-says-gulag-is-folklore.html">"Solzhenitsyn's Ex-Wife Says 'Gulag' Is 'Folklore'"</a>. The New York Times. 6 February 1974. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 27 June 2021.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLewis2003" class="citation news cs1">Lewis, Paul (6 June 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/06/world/natalya-reshetovskaya-84-is-dead-solzhenitsyn-s-wife-questioned-gulag.html">"Natalya Reshetovskaya, 84, Is Dead; Solzhenitsyn's Wife Questioned 'Gulag'"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 27 June 2021.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-NataliaSolzhenitsyn-21"><a href="#cite_ref-NataliaSolzhenitsyn_21-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://app.luminpdf.com/viewer/5ee236c7e8f0b4001277aade">"Natalia Solzhenitsyn: Returning to 'The Gulag'"</a>. <a href="The_New_Criterion" title="The New Criterion">The New Criterion</a>. September 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2021.

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<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLewis2003" class="citation news cs1">Lewis, Paul (6 June 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/06/world/natalya-reshetovskaya-84-is-dead-solzhenitsyn-s-wife-questioned-gulag.html">"Natalya Reshetovskaya, 84, Is Dead; Solzhenitsyn's Wife Questioned 'Gulag'"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 3 January 2022.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSmith2003" class="citation news cs1">Smith, J.Y. (5 June 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2003/06/05/natalya-reshetovskaya-dies-at-84/15a67b5d-284c-4c88-a167-e4c36a4a7ee5/">"Natalya Reshetovskaya Dies at 84"</a>. <a href="The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2641-9599">2641-9599</a>. Retrieved 5 July 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Wheatcroft1996S-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Wheatcroft1996S_24-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Stephen_G._Wheatcroft" title="Stephen G. Wheatcroft">Wheatcroft, Stephen</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-German_Soviet.pdf">"The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45"</a> (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 48 (8): 1330. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139608412415">10.1080/09668139608412415</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/152781">152781</a>. <q>When Solzhenitsyn wrote and distributed his Gulag Archipelago it had enormous political significance and greatly increased popular understanding of part of the repression system. But this was a literary and political work; it never claimed to place the camps in a historical or social-scientific quantitative perspective, Solzhenitsyn cited a figure of 12–15 million in the camps. But this was a figure that he hurled at the authorities as a challenge for them to show that the scale of the camps was less than this.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft1999" class="citation journal cs1">Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (March 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-Secret_Police.pdf">"Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word"</a> (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 51 (2). London, England: Routledge: 340–342. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139999056">10.1080/09668139999056</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/153614">153614</a>. Retrieved 4 September 2021 – via Soviet Studies. <q>For decades, many historians counted Stalin' s victims in 'tens of millions', which was a figure supported by Solzhenitsyn. Since the collapse of the USSR, the lower estimates of the scale of the camps have been vindicated. The arguments about excess mortality are far more complex than normally believed. R. Conquest, The Great Terror: A Re-assessment (London, 1992) does not really get to grips with the new data and continues to present an exaggerated picture of the repression. The view of the 'revisionists' has been largely substantiated (J. Arch Getty & R. T. Manning (eds), Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993)). The popular press, even TLS and The Independent, have contained erroneous journalistic articles that should not be cited in respectable academic articles.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Getty, J. Arch (1981). Origins of the Great Purges. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 211.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Getty, J. Arch (1981). Origins of the Great Purges. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 218-9

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Rittersporn, Gabor (1991). Stalinist Simplifications and Soviet Complications, 1933–1953. New York: Harwood Academic Publishers. pp. 231–235.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRogovin1998" class="citation book cs1">Rogovin, Vadim (1998). 1937: Year of Terror. p. xx.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLaquer1990" class="citation book cs1">Laquer, Walter (1990). Stalin The Glasnost Revelations. Scribner's. p. 127.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRogovin1998" class="citation book cs1">Rogovin, Vadim (1998). 1937 Stalin's Year of Terror. Mehring Books. p. xx.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Held des Westens, <a href="Die_Zeit" title="Die Zeit">Die Zeit</a>, 7 August 2008

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Medvedev, Roy. On Stalin and Stalinism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979, p. ix

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMedvedev1974" class="citation news cs1">Medvedev, Roy (7 February 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1974/02/07/archives/excerpts-from-roy-medvedevs-essay-on-solzhenitsyns-gulag.html">"Excerpts From Roy Medvedev's Essay on Solzhenitsyn's 'Gulag Archipelago'"</a>. <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMedvedev1974" class="citation journal cs1">Medvedev, Roy (1974). "On Solzhenitsyn's Book The Gulag Archipelago". Soviet Studies in Literature. 10 (3). Taylor & Francis Online: 44–62. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2753%2FRSL1061-1975100344">10.2753/RSL1061-1975100344</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-TBB50-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TBB50_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TBB50_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TBB50_36-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFButler-Bowdon" class="citation book cs1">Butler-Bowdon, Tom. 50 Politics Classics: Freedom, Equality, Power (50 Classics) (Kindle ed.). Nicholas Brealey. pp. Chapter 43.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFScammell2018" class="citation news cs1">Scammell, Michael (11 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/11/opinion/solzhenitsyn-soviet-union-putin.html">"The Writer Who Destroyed an Empire"</a>. <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved 8 January 2022. <q>In 1973, still in the Soviet Union, he sent abroad his literary and polemical masterpiece, 'The Gulag Archipelago.' The nonfiction account exposed the enormous crimes that had led to the wholesale incarceration and slaughter of millions of innocent victims, demonstrating that its dimensions were on a par with the Holocaust. Solzhenitsyn's gesture amounted to a head-on challenge to the Soviet state, calling its very legitimacy into question and demanding revolutionary change.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-economistopinion-38"><a href="#cite_ref-economistopinion_38-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/opinion/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11885318">"Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: Speaking truth to power"</a>. <a href="The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>. 7 August 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2021.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMares2008" class="citation news cs1">Mares, Peter (12 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/archived/bookshow/alexander-solzhenitsyn/3199040">"Alexander Solzhenitsyn"</a>. ABC AU. Retrieved 8 January 2022. <q>The author of a One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, The Gulag Archipelago, Cancer Ward, First Circle and many other books, Solzhenitsyn exposed the brutality of the Soviet system to his fellow Russians and to the rest of the world...he criticised the system, as we know, and he wrote The Gulag Archipelago which was a study of the way in which the gulag system worked, but at the same time as having that systematic critique of the Soviet Union, he never let go of the idea of individual responsibility within it, did he, a personal morality.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/104/1049544/the-gulag-archipelago/9781784871512.html">The Gulag Archipelago</a>. Penguin. November 2018. Retrieved 4 March 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHains2018" class="citation news cs1">Hains, Tim (30 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.realclearpolitics.com/video/2018/09/30/jordan_peterson_on_soviet_history_this_is_not_widespread_knowledge.html">"Jordan Peterson On Soviet Horrors, The Gulag Archipelago: 'This Is Not Widespread Knowledge'"</a>. Real Clear Politics. Retrieved 8 January 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.france24.com/en/20190405-china-threat-world-says-dissident-writer">"China is 'threat to world' says dissident writer"</a>. France 24. 5 April 2019. Retrieved 8 January 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSvrluga2011" class="citation news cs1">Svrluga, Susan (17 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-state-of-nova/post/chinese-dissident-liao-yiwu-to-speak-at-patrick-henry-college/2011/10/17/gIQAIfTrrL_blog.html">"Chinese dissident Liao Yiwu to speak at Patrick Henry College"</a>. The Washington Post. Retrieved 8 January 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rossiya_K-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rossiya_K_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rossiya_K_44-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200919031642/https://tvkultura.ru/brand/show/brand_id/32856/">"'Тайная история "Архипелага ГУЛАГ"'. Премьера фильма"</a>. The press service the channel <a href="Rossiya_K" class="mw-redirect" title="Rossiya K">Rossiya K</a>. 12 December 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tvkultura.ru/brand/show/brand_id/32856">the original</a> on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 23 August 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Nicolaev-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Nicolaev_45-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMarina2009" class="citation news cs1">Marina, Nicolaev (10 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.poezie.ro/index.php/article/13908962/index.html">"Ultimul interviu Aleksandr Soljeniţîn: 'L\'histoire secrète de L\'ARCHIPEL DU GULAG'"</a>. Poezie. Retrieved 23 August 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130113181358/http://video.yandex.ru/users/fancyfly/view/39/">Secret History: The Gulag Archipelago</a> (in Russian). Video.yandex.ru. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://video.yandex.ru/users/fancyfly/view/39/">the original</a> on 13 January 2013.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Archived at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/adc34lToCYM">Ghostarchive</a> and the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200317091112/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adc34lToCYM&app=desktop">Wayback Machine</a>: <cite id="CITEREFCrepuMiletitch" class="citation web cs1">Crepu, Jean; Miletitch, Nicolas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adc34lToCYM">"Secret History | The Gulag Archipelago"</a>. YouTube.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJakobson1992" class="citation book cs1">Jakobson, Michael (1992). Origins of the Gulag: The Soviet Prison Camp System, 1917–1934. University Press of Kentucky. p. 16. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780813117966</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/The_Gulag_Archipelago" class="extiw external" title="q:Special:Search/The Gulag Archipelago">The Gulag Archipelago</a>.</div></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFSolzhenitsyn,_Aleksandr2024" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr (17 January 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheGulagArchipelagoVolumeI">The Gulag Archipelago</a> (in Russian).</cite> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130311152853/http://a-solzhenitsyn.narod.ru/arhipelag_gulag/">All volumes for reading in browser</a>, or plaintext: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.ru/PROZA/SOLZHENICYN/gulag.txt">parts 1 and 2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.ru/PROZA/SOLZHENICYN/gulag2.txt">parts 3 and 4</a>, and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.ru/PROZA/SOLZHENICYN/gulag3.txt">parts 5, 6, and 7</a>.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSolzhenitsyn,_Aleksandr" class="citation book cs1">Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr. The Gulag Archipelago. Internet Archive (various formats).</cite> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheGulagArchipelago-Threevolumes">All Volumes</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060527214210/http://english.mn.ru/english/issue.php?2006-15-35">Saving the Nation Is the Utmost Priority for the State</a> at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 27 May 2006) Moscow News (2006-05-02)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCohen,_Stephen_F.1974" class="citation news cs1">Cohen, Stephen F. (16 June 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/03/01/home/solz-gulag.html">"Books: The Gulag Archipelago"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 7 December 2014.</cite></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Selected_works_by_Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn85" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Selected_works_by_Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn85" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Selected works by <a href="Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poetry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Prussian_Nights" title="Prussian Nights">Prussian Nights</a> (1974)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="The_Love-Girl_and_the_Innocent" title="The Love-Girl and the Innocent">The Love-Girl and the Innocent</a> (1969)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Novels</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="The_First_Circle" class="mw-redirect" title="The First Circle">The First Circle</a> (1968)</li>

<li><a href="Cancer_Ward" title="Cancer Ward">Cancer Ward</a> (1968)</li>

<li><a href="The_Red_Wheel" title="The Red Wheel">The Red Wheel</a>: <a href="August_1914_(novel)" title="August 1914 (novel)">August 1914</a> (1971), <a href="November_1916_(novel)" title="November 1916 (novel)">November 1916</a> (1985)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Short fiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="One_Day_in_the_Life_of_Ivan_Denisovich" title="One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich">One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich</a> (1962)</li>

<li><a href="Matryona's_Place" title="Matryona's Place">Matryona's Place</a> (1963)</li>

<li><a href="An_Incident_at_Krechetovka_Station" title="An Incident at Krechetovka Station">An Incident at Krechetovka Station</a> (1963)</li>

<li><a href="For_the_Good_of_the_Cause" title="For the Good of the Cause">For the Good of the Cause</a> (1963)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-fiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Two_Hundred_Years_Together" title="Two Hundred Years Together">Two Hundred Years Together</a> (2003)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q369944#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata659" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q369944#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata659" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/293372064">VIAF</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4739174-1">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120051289">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120051289">BnF data</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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